You are 62 years old and have rheumatoid arthritis. You are attending an appointment to get information about the Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccination (PPV) which you have been advised to have.
Task § When asked, say that the clinic sent a letter to say you had to have the vaccination. Say that you don’t think you need to have it. § Say that you always get an annual flu jab; you thought that would be enough protection. § Ask if you are likely to feel unwell after you have the vaccination. § Say you had an annual flu vaccination two weeks ago so maybe it is better to wait before you have another vaccination. § Say you felt fine after the flu vaccination; it didn’t cause any problems at all. § Agree to have the vaccination.
NURSE. Role play. Setting: Suburban Clinic
You see a 62-year-old patient who has rheumatoid arthritis. He/she is attending an appointment to get information about the Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccination (PPV) which he/she has been advised to have.
Task: • Confirm the reason for the patient’s visit (PPV). • Explain the need for the vaccination (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis patients at higher risk of pneumococcal infections/compromised immune systems, etc.). Stress the importance of immunisation against pneumococcal infections (e.g., pneumonia, septicaemia, etc.). • Give details about the vaccines: PPV (bacterial, remains the same, given every three years, etc.) and flu (viral, strain constantly changes, given yearly, etc.). • Outline possible temporary mild side effects (e.g., slight temperature, redness/swelling at injection site, etc.). Recommend making an appointment with a GP if not well. • Ask the patient about any reaction to the flu vaccination (e.g., high temperature, muscle aches, fatigue, etc.). • Reassure the patient about having the PPV today (e.g., no adverse reaction to flu vaccine, suitable interval since earlier vaccine, etc.). Establish the patient’s consent to have the PPV.
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PATIENT. Role play. Setting: Community Heath Centre.
You are 35 years old and are going on a rip soon. You know that you need to take Malaria medication but are concerned as you have suffered from depression in the past, and you’ve read that there is some malaria mediation you shouldn’t take.
Task: § When asked, say you’re going on a trip around southeast Asia soon. Say you know you need to take malaria medication but you’ve had depression in the past and you’ve read that there is some malaria medication you shouldn’t take. § Say you’re going to be traveling for a month and will be mainly in rural areas, but plan to visit some cities too. § Say you’d rather not take medication for so long when you return, so maybe you can just try to avoid getting bitten. § Say you don’t want to take medication for a long time because you’re worried about the side effects. § Say you don’t want to have those problems. Agree to take the medication.
Nurse. Role play. Setting: Community Heath Centre.
You see a 35-year-old patient who is going on a trip soon and needs to take malaria medication. He/she is concerned about taking this medication as he/she has suffered from depression in the past, and has read that there is some malaria medication he/she shouldn’t take.
Task: • Find out reason for patient’s visit. • Find out relevant details about trip (length of visit, rural/urban, etc.), • Recommend doxycycline for malaria prophylaxis (no contraindications for patients with history of depression, etc). Give details of dosage (100mg daily with food, Iwo days before trip, during trip and four weeks after return, etc). • Stress the need for both medication and bite prevention measures (e.g., high-risk area visited, length of visit etc). Give reasons for long dose of doxycycline (e.g.: reluctance to take medication over long period of time). • Give details of possible side effects (e.g., Heartburn, upset stomach, increased risk of sunburn etc.) Warn patient of risks of not taking medication if malaria is contracted (e.g.: heart/kidney problems, etc).
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Chronobiology might sound a little futuristic – like something from a science fiction novel, perhaps – but it’s actually a field of study that concerns one of the oldest processes life on this planet has ever known: short-term rhythms of time and their effect on flora and fauna.
This can take many forms. Marine life, for example, is influenced by tidal patterns. Animals tend to be active or inactive depending on the position of the sun or moon. Numerous creatures, humans included, are largely diurnal – that is, they like to come out during the hours of sunlight. Nocturnal animals, such as bats and possums, prefer to forage by night. A third group are known as crepuscular: they thrive in the low- light of dawn and dusk and remain inactive at other hours.
When it comes to humans, chronobiologists are interested in what is known as the circadian rhythm. This is the complete cycle our bodies are naturally geared to undergo within the passage of a twenty-four hour day. Aside from sleeping at night and waking during the day, each cycle involves many other factors such as changes in blood pressure and body temperature. Not everyone has an identical circadian rhythm. ‘Night people’, for example, often describe how they find it very hard to operate during the morning, but become alert and focused by evening. This is a benign variation within circadian rhythms known as a chronotype.
Scientists have limited abilities to create durable modifications of chronobiological demands. Recent therapeutic developments for humans such as artificial light machines and melatonin administration can reset our circadian rhythms, for example, but our bodies can tell the difference and health suffers when we breach these natural rhythms for extended periods of time. Plants appear no more malleable in this respect; studies demonstrate that vegetables grown in season and ripened on the tree are far higher in essential nutrients than those grown in greenhouses and ripened by laser.
Knowledge of chronobiological patterns can have many pragmatic implications for our day-to-day lives. While contemporary living can sometimes appear to subjugate biology – after all, who needs circadian rhythms when we have caffeine pills, energy drinks, shift work and cities that never sleep? – keeping in synch with our body clock is important.
The average urban resident, for example, rouses at the eye-blearing time of 6.04 a.m., which researchers believe to be far too early. One study found that even rising at 7.00 a.m. has deleterious effects on health unless exercise is performed for 30 minutes afterward. The optimum moment has been whittled down to 7.22 a.m.; muscle aches, headaches and moodiness were reported to be lowest by participants in the study who awoke then.
Once you’re up and ready to go, what then? If you’re trying to shed some extra pounds, dieticians are adamant: never skip breakfast. This disorients your circadian rhythm and puts your body in starvation mode. The recommended course of action is to follow an intense workout with a carbohydrate-rich breakfast; the other way round and weight loss results are not as pronounced.
Morning is also great for breaking out the vitamins. Supplement absorption by the body is not temporal- dependent, but naturopath Pam Stone notes that the extra boost at breakfast helps us get energised for the day ahead. For improved absorption, Stone suggests pairing supplements with a food in which they are soluble and steering clear of caffeinated beverages. Finally, Stone warns to take care with storage; high potency is best for absorption, and warmth and humidity are known to deplete the potency of a supplement.
After-dinner espressos are becoming more of a tradition – we have the Italians to thank for that – but to prepare for a good night’s sleep we are better off putting the brakes on caffeine consumption as early as 3 p.m. With a seven hour half-life, a cup of coffee containing 90 mg of caffeine taken at this hour could still leave 45 mg of caffeine in your nervous system at ten o’clock that evening. It is essential that, by the time you are ready to sleep, your body is rid of all traces.
Evenings are important for winding down before sleep; however, dietician Geraldine Georgeou warns that an after-five carbohydrate-fast is more cultural myth than chronobiological demand. This will deprive your body of vital energy needs. Overloading your gut could lead to indigestion, though. Our digestive tracts do not shut down for the night entirely, but their work slows to a crawl as our bodies prepare for sleep. Consuming a modest snack should be entirely sufficient.
Questions 1-7 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1? In boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
1. Chronobiology is the study of how living things have evolved over time.
2. The rise and fall of sea levels affects how sea creatures behave.
3. Most animals are active during the daytime.
4. Circadian rhythms identify how we do different things on different days.
5. A ‘night person’ can still have a healthy circadian rhythm.
6. New therapies can permanently change circadian rhythms without causing harm.
7. Naturally-produced vegetables have more nutritional value.
Questions 8-13 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. Write the correct letter in boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet.
8. What did researchers identify as the ideal time to wake up in the morning? A 6.04 B 7.00 C 7.22 D 7.30
9. In order to lose weight, we should A avoid eating breakfast B eat a low carbohydrate breakfast C exercise before breakfast D exercise after breakfast
10. Which is NOT mentioned as a way to improve supplement absorption? A avoiding drinks containing caffeine while taking supplements B taking supplements at breakfast C taking supplements with foods that can dissolve them D storing supplements in a cool, dry environment
11. The best time to stop drinking coffee is A mid-afternoon B 10 p.m. C only when feeling anxious D after dinner
12. In the evening, we should A stay away from carbohydrates B stop exercising C eat as much as possible D eat a light meal
13. Which of the following phrases best describes the main aim of Reading Passage 1? A to suggest healthier ways of eating, sleeping and exercising B to describe how modern life has made chronobiology largely irrelevant C to introduce chronobiology and describe some practical applications D to plan a daily schedule that can alter our natural chronobiological rhythms
Reading passage 2 The Triune Brain
The first of our three brains to evolve is what scientists call the reptilian cortex. This brain sustains the elementary activities of animal survival such as respiration, adequate rest and a beating heart. We are not required to consciously “think” about these activities. The reptilian cortex also houses the “startle centre”, a mechanism that facilitates swift reactions to unexpected occurrences in our surroundings. That panicked lurch you experience when a door slams shut somewhere in the house, or the heightened awareness you feel when a twig cracks in a nearby bush while out on an evening stroll are both examples of the reptilian cortex at work. When it comes to our interaction with others, the reptilian brain offers up only the most basic impulses: aggression, mating, and territorial defence. There is no great difference, in this sense, between a crocodile defending its spot along the river and a turf war between two urban gangs.
Although the lizard may stake a claim to its habitat, it exerts total indifference toward the well-being of its young. Listen to the anguished squeal of a dolphin separated from its pod or witness the sight of elephants mourning their dead, however, and it is clear that a new development is at play. Scientists have identified this as the limbic cortex. Unique to mammals, the limbic cortex impels creatures to nurture their offspring by delivering feelings of tenderness and warmth to the parent when children are nearby. These same sensations also cause mammals to develop various types of social relations and kinship networks. When we are with others of “our kind” – be it at soccer practice, church, school or a nightclub – we experience positive sensations of togetherness, solidarity and comfort. If we spend too long away from these networks, then loneliness sets in and encourages us to seek companionship.
Only human capabilities extend far beyond the scope of these two cortexes. Humans eat, sleep and play, but we also speak, plot, rationalise and debate finer points of morality. Our unique abilities are the result of an expansive third brain – the neocortex – which engages with logic, reason and ideas. The power of the neocortex comes from its ability to think beyond the present, concrete moment. While other mammals are mainly restricted to impulsive actions (although some, such as apes, can learn and remember simple lessons), humans can think about the “big picture”. We can string together simple lessons (for example, an apple drops downwards from a tree; hurting others causes unhappiness) to develop complex theories of physical or social phenomena (such as the laws of gravity and a concern for human rights).
The neocortex is also responsible for the process by which we decide on and commit to particular courses of action. Strung together over time, these choices can accumulate into feats of progress unknown to other animals. Anticipating a better grade on the following morning’s exam, a student can ignore the limbic urge to socialise and go to sleep early instead. Over three years, this ongoing sacrifice translates into a first class degree and a scholarship to graduate school; over a lifetime, it can mean ground¬breaking contributions to human knowledge and development. The ability to sacrifice our drive for immediate satisfaction in order to benefit later is a product of the neocortex.
Understanding the triune brain can help us appreciate the different natures of brain damage and psychological disorders. The most devastating form of brain damage, for example, is a condition in which someone is understood to be brain dead. In this state a person appears merely unconscious – sleeping, perhaps – but this is illusory. Here, the reptilian brain is functioning on autopilot despite the permanent loss of other cortexes.
Disturbances to the limbic cortex are registered in a different manner. Pups with limbic damage can move around and feed themselves well enough but do not register the presence of their littermates. Scientists have observed how, after a limbic lobotomy ,“one impaired monkey stepped on his outraged peers as if treading on a log or a rock”. In our own species, limbic damage is closely related to sociopathic behaviour. Sociopaths in possession of fully-functioning neocortexes are often shrewd and emotionally intelligent people but lack any ability to relate to, empathise with or express concern for others.
One of the neurological wonders of history occurred when a railway worker named Phineas Gage survived an incident during which a metal rod skewered his skull, taking a considerable amount of his neocortex with it. Though Gage continued to live and work as before, his fellow employees observed a shift in the equilibrium of his personality. Gage’s animal propensities were now sharply pronounced while his intellectual abilities suffered; garrulous or obscene jokes replaced his once quick wit. New findings suggest, however, that Gage managed to soften these abrupt changes over time and rediscover an appropriate social manner. This would indicate that reparative therapy has the potential to help patients with advanced brain trauma to gain an improved quality of life.
Questions 14-22 Classify the following as typical of A the reptilian cortex B the limbic cortex C the neocortex
Write the correct letter, A, B or C, in boxes 14-22 on your answer sheet.
14 giving up short-term happiness for future gains 15 maintaining the bodily functions necessary for life 16 experiencing the pain of losing another 17 forming communities and social groups 18 making a decision and carrying it out 19 guarding areas of land 20 developing explanations for things 21 looking after one’s young 22 responding quickly to sudden movement and noise
Questions 23-26 Complete the sentences below. Write NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 23-26 on your answer sheet.
23 A person with only a functioning reptilian cortex is known as………………… 24 …………………in humans is associated with limbic disruption. 25 An industrial accident caused Phineas Gage to lose part of his………………………. 26 After his accident, co-workers noticed an imbalance between Gage’s………………and higher-order thinking.
HELIUM’S FUTURE UP IN THE AIR
A In recent years we have all been exposed to dire media reports concerning the impending demise of global coal and oil reserves, but the depletion of another key non-renewable resource continues without receiving much press at all. Helium – an inert, odourless, monatomic element known to lay people as the substance that makes balloons float and voices squeak when inhaled – could be gone from this planet within a generation.
B Helium itself is not rare; there is actually a plentiful supply of it in the cosmos. In fact, 24 per cent of our galaxy’s elemental mass consists of helium, which makes it the second most abundant element in our universe. Because of its lightness, however, most helium vanished from our own planet many years ago. Consequently, only a miniscule proportion – 0.00052%, to be exact – remains in earth’s atmosphere. Helium is the by¬product of millennia of radioactive decay from the elements thorium and uranium. The helium is mostly trapped in subterranean natural gas bunkers and commercially extracted through a method known as fractional distillation.
C The loss of helium on Earth would affect society greatly. Defying the perception of it as a novelty substance for parties and gimmicks, the element actually has many vital applications in society. Probably the most well known commercial usage is in airships and blimps (non-flammable helium replaced hydrogen as the lifting gas du jour after the Hindenburg catastrophe in 1932, during which an airship burst into flames and crashed to the ground killing some passengers and crew). But helium is also instrumental in deep-sea diving, where it is blended with nitrogen to mitigate the dangers of inhaling ordinary air under high pressure; as a cleaning agent for rocket engines; and, in its most prevalent use, as a coolant for superconducting magnets in hospital MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scanners.
D The possibility of losing helium forever poses the threat of a real crisis because its unique qualities are extraordinarily difficult, if not impossible to duplicate (certainly, no biosynthetic ersatz product is close to approaching the point of feasibility for helium, even as similar developments continue apace for oil and coal). Helium is even cheerfully derided as a “loner” element since it does not adhere to other molecules like its cousin, hydrogen. According to Dr. Lee Sobotka, helium is the most noble of gases, meaning it’s very stable and non-reactive for the most part … it has a closed electronic configuration, a very tightly bound atom. It is this coveting of its own electrons that prevents combination with other elements’. Another important attribute is helium’s unique boiling point, which is lower than that for any other element. The worsening global shortage could render millions of dollars of high-value, life-saving equipment totally useless. The dwindling supplies have already resulted in the postponement of research and development projects in physics laboratories and manufacturing plants around the world. There is an enormous supply and demand imbalance partly brought about by the expansion of high-tech manufacturing in Asia.
E The source of the problem is the Helium Privatisation Act (HPA), an American law passed in 1996 that requires the U.S. National Helium Reserve to liquidate its helium assets by 2015 regardless of the market price. Although intended to settle the original cost of the reserve by a U.S. Congress ignorant of its ramifications, the result of this fire sale is that global helium prices are so artificially deflated that few can be bothered recycling the substance or using it judiciously. Deflated values also mean that natural gas extractors see no reason to capture helium. Much is lost in the process of extraction. As Sobotka notes: “*t+he government had the good vision to store helium, and the question now is: Will the corporations have the vision to capture it when extracting natural gas, and consumers the wisdom to recycle? This takes long-term vision because present market forces are not sufficient to compel prudent practice”. For Nobel-prize laureate Robert Richardson, the U.S. government must be prevailed upon to repeal its privatisation policy as the country supplies over 80 per cent of global helium, mostly from the National Helium Reserve. For Richardson, a twenty- to fifty-fold increase in prices would provide incentives to recycle.
F A number of steps need to be taken in order to avert a costly predicament in the coming decades. Firstly, all existing supplies of helium ought to be conserved and released only by permit, with medical uses receiving precedence over other commercial or recreational demands. Secondly, conservation should be obligatory and enforced by a regulatory agency. At the moment some users, such as hospitals, tend to recycle diligently while others, such as NASA, squander massive amounts of helium. Lastly, research into alternatives to helium must begin in earnest.
Questions 27-31 Reading Passage 3 has six paragraphs, A-F.
27 a use for helium which makes an activity safer 28 the possibility of creating an alternative to helium 29 a term which describes the process of how helium is taken out of the ground 30 a reason why users of helium do not make efforts to conserve it 31 a contrast between helium’s chemical properties and how non-scientists think about it
Questions 32-35 Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 3? In boxes 32-35 on your answer sheet, write
YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
32 Helium chooses to be on its own. 33 Helium is a very cold substance. 34 High-tech industries in Asia use more helium than laboratories and manufacturers in other parts of the world. 35 The US Congress understood the possible consequences of the HPA.
Questions 36-40 Complete the summary below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Sobotka argues that big business and users of helium need to help look after helium stocks because (36)………………… will not be encouraged through buying and selling alone. Richardson believes that the (37) …………………needs to be withdrawn, as the U.S. provides most of the world’s helium. He argues that higher costs would mean people have (38)………………… to use the resource many times over. People should need a (39)………………… to access helium that we still have. Furthermore, a (40)………………… should ensure that helium is used carefully.
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Research in Britain has shown that ‘green consumers’ continue to flourish as a significant group amongst shoppers. This suggests that politicians who claim environmentalism is yesterday’s issue may be seriously misjudging the public mood.
A report from Mintel, the market research organisation, says that despite recession and financial pressures, more people than ever want to buy environmentally friendly products and a ‘green wave’ has swept through consumerism, taking in people previously untouched by environmental concerns. The recently published report also predicts that the process will repeat itself with ‘ethical’ concerns, involving issues such as fair trade with the Third World and the social record of businesses. Companies will have to be more honest and open in response to this mood.
Mintel’s survey, based on nearly 1,000 consumers, found that the proportion who look for green products and are prepared to pay more for them has climbed from 53 per cent in 1990 to around 60 per cent in 1994. On average, they will pay 13 per cent more for such products, although this percentage is higher among women, managerial and professional groups and those aged 35 to 44.
Between 1990 and 1994 the proportion of consumers claiming to be unaware of or unconcerned about green issues fell from 18 to 10 per cent but the number of green spenders among older people and manual workers has risen substantially. Regions such as Scotland have also caught up with the south of England in their environmental concerns. According to Mintel, the image of green consumerism as associated in the past with the more eccentric members of society has virtually disappeared. The consumer research manager for Mintel, Angela Hughes, said it had become firmly established as a mainstream market. She explained that as far as the average person is concerned environmentalism has not ‘gone off the boil’. In fact, it has spread across a much wider range of consumer groups, ages and occupations.
Mintel’s 1994 survey found that 13 per cent of consumers are ‘very dark green’, nearly always buying environmentally friendly products, 28 per cent are ‘dark green’, trying ‘as far as possible’ to buy such products, and 21 per cent are ‘pale green’ – tending to buy green products if they see them. Another 26 per cent are ‘armchair greens’; they said they care about environmental issues but their concern does not affect their spending habits. Only 10 per cent say they do not care about green issues. Four in ten people are ‘ethical spenders’, buying goods which do not, for example, involve dealings with oppressive regimes. This figure is the same its in 1990, although the number of ‘armchair ethicals’ has risen from 28 to 35 per cent and only 22 per cent say they are unconcerned now, against 30 per cent in 1990. Hughes claims that in the twenty-first century, consumers will be encouraged to think more about the entire history of the products and services they buy, including the policies of the companies that provide them and that this will require a greater degree of honesty with consumers.
Among green consumers, animal testing is the top issue – 48 per cent said they would be deterred from buying a product it if had been tested on animals – followed by concerns regarding irresponsible selling, the ozone layer, river and sea pollution, forest destruction, recycling and factory farming. However, concern for specific issues is lower than in 1990, suggesting that many consumers feel that Government and business have taken on the environmental agenda.
Questions 1-6 Do the fallowing statements agree with the claims of the writer of Reading Passage I? In boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet write YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
1 The research findings report commercial rather than political trends. 2 Being financially better off has made shoppers more sensitive to buying ‘green’. 3 The majority of shoppers are prepared to pay more for the benefit of the environment according to the research findings.
4 Consumers’ green shopping habits are influenced by Mintel’s findings. 5 Mintel have limited their investigation to professional and managerial groups. 6 Mintel undertakes market surveys on an annual basis.
Questions 7-9 Choose the appropriate letters A-D
7 Politicians may have ‘misjudged the public mood’ because
A they are pre-occupied with the recession and financial probl ms
B there is more widespread interest in the environment agenda than they anticipated
C consumer spending has increased significantly as a result of ‘green’ pressure
D shoppers are displeased with government policies on a range of issues.
8. What is Mintel?
A an environmentalist group
B a business survey organisation
C an academic research team
D political organisation
9. A consumer expressing concern for environmental issues without actively supporting such principles is
A an ethical spender
B a very dark green spender
C an armchair green
D a pale green spender
Questions10-13
Complete the summary using words from the box below. Write your answers in boxes 10-13 on your answer sheet. NB There are more answers than spaces, so you will not use them all.
The Mintel report suggests that in future companies will be forced to practise greater (10)… ……………………..in their dealings because of the increased awareness amongst (11)…………………………… of ethical issues. This prediction is supported by the growth in the number of (12)………………………….identified in the most recent survey published. As a consequence, it is felt that companies will have to think more carefully about their (13)………………………..
environmental research
social awareness
consumers
honesty and openness
social record
political belief
ethical spenders
armchair ethical
financial constrains
politicians
environmentalist
Reading Passage 2
A There is a great concern in Europe and North America about declining standards of literacy in schools. In Britain, the fact that 30 per cent of 16 year olds have a reading age of 14 or less has helped to prompt massive educational changes. The development of literacy has far-reaching effects on general intellectual development and thus anything which impedes the development of literacy is a serious matter for us all. So the hunt is on for the cause of the decline in literacy. The search so far has focused on socio-economic factors, or the effectiveness of ‘traditional’ versus ‘modern’ teaching techniques.
B The fruitless search for the cause of the increase in illiteracy is a tragic example of the saying ‘They can’t see the wood for the trees’. When teachers use picture books, they are simply continuing a long-established tradition that is accepted without question. And for the past two decades, illustrations in reading primers have become increasingly detailed and obtrusive, while language has become impoverished – sometimes to the point of extinction.
C Amazingly, there is virtually no empirical evidence to support the use of illustrations in teaching reading. On the contrary, a great deal of empirical evidence shows that pictures interfere in a damaging way with all aspects of learning to read. Despite this, from North America to the Antipodes, the first books that many school children receive are totally without text.
D A teacher’s main concern is to help young beginner readers to develop not only the ability to recognise words, but the skills necessary to understand what these words mean. Even if a child is able to read aloud fluently, he or she may not be able to understand much of it: this is called ‘barking at text’. The teacher’s task of improving comprehension is made harder by influences outside the classroom. But the adverse effects of such things as television, video games, or limited language experiences at home, can be offset by experiencing ‘rich’ language at school.
E Instead, it is not unusual for a book of 30 or more pages to have only one sentence full of repetitive phrases. The artwork is often marvellous, but the pictures make the language redundant, and the children have no need to imagine anything when they read such books. Looking at a picture actively prevents children younger than nine from creating a mental image, and can make it difficult for older children. In order to learn how to comprehend, they need to practise making their own meaning in response to text. They need to have their innate powers of imagination trained.
F As they grow older, many children turn aside from books without pictures, and it is a situation made more serious as our culture becomes more visual. It is hard to wean children off picture books when pictures have played a major part throughout their formative reading experiences, and when there is competition for their attention from so many other sources of entertainment. The least intelligent are most vulnerable, but tests show that even intelligent children are being affected. The response of educators has been to extend the use of pictures in books and to simplify the language, even at senior levels. The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge recently held joint conferences to discuss the noticeably rapid decline in literacy among their undergraduates.
G Pictures are also used to help motivate children to read because they are beautiful and eye-catching. But motivation to read should be provided by listening to stories well read, where children imagine in response to the story. Then, as they start to read, they have this experience to help them understand the language. If we present pictures to save children the trouble of developing these creative skills, then I think we are making a great mistake. H Academic journals ranging from educational research, psychology, language learning, psycholinguistics, and so on cite experiments which demonstrate how detrimental pictures are for beginner readers. Here is a brief selection:
I The research results of the Canadian educationalist Dale Willows were clear and consistent: pictures affected speed and accuracy and the closer the pictures were to the words, the slower and more inaccurate the child’s reading became. She claims that when children come to a word they already know, then the pictures are unnecessary and distracting. If they do not know a word and look to the picture for a clue to its meaning, they may well be misled by aspects of the pictures which are not closely related to the meaning of the word they are trying to understand.
J Jay Samuels, an American psychologist, found that poor readers given no pictures learnt significantly more words than those learning to read with books with pictures. He examined the work of other researchers who had reported problems with the use of pictures and who found that a word without a picture was superior to a word plus a picture. When children were given words and pictures, those who seemed to ignore the pictures and pointed at the words learnt more words than the children who pointed at the pictures but they still learnt fewer words than the children who had no illustrate stimuli at all.
Questions 14-17 Choose the appropriate letters A-D and write them in boxes 14-17.
14 Readers are said to ‘bark’ at a text when A they read too loudly
B there are too many repetitive words
C they are discouraged from using their imagination
D they have difficulty assessing its meaning
15 The text suggests that
A pictures in books should be less detailed
B pictures can slow down reading progress
C picture books are best used with younger readers
D pictures make modern books too expensive
16. University academics are concerned because
A young people are showing less interest in higher education
B students cannot understand modern academic text
C academic books are too childish for their under graduation
D there has been a significant change in student literature
17. The youngest readers will quickly develop good reading skills if they
A learn to associate the words in a text with pictures
B are exposed to modern teaching techniques
C are encouraged to ignore pictures in the text
D learn the art of telling stories
Questions 18-21 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2? In boxes 18-21 on your answer sheet write YES if the statement agrees with the information NO if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information about this in the passage
18 It is traditionally accepted that children’s books should contain few pictures. 19 Teachers aim to teach both word recognition and word meaning. 20 Older readers are having difficulty in adjusting to texts without pictures. 21 Literacy has improved as a result of recent academic conferences.
Questions 22-25 Reading Passage 2 has ten paragraphs, A-J. Which paragraphs state the following information? 22 The decline of literacy is seen in groups of differing ages and abilities. 23 Reading methods currently in use go against research findings. 24 Readers able to ignore pictures are claimed to make greater progress. 25 Illustrations in books can give misleading information about word meaning.
Question 26 From the list below choose the most suitable title for the whole of Reading Passage 2. A The global decline in reading levels B Concern about recent educational developments C The harm that picture books can cause D Research carried out on children’s literatu e E An examination of modern reading styles
Reading passage 3
IN SEARCH OF THE HOLY GRAIL
It has been called the Holy Grail of modern biology. Costing more than £2 billion, it is the most ambitious scientific project since the Apollo programme that landed a man on the moon. And it will take longer to accomplish than the lunar missions, for it will not be complete until early next century. Even before it is finished, according to those involved, this project should open up new understanding of, and new treatments for, many of the ailments that afflict humanity. As a result of the Human Genome Project, there will be new hope of liberation from the shadows of cancer, heart disease, auto-immune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, and some psychiatric illnesses.
The objective of the Human Genome Project is simple to state, but audacious in scope: to map and analyse every single gene within the double helix of humanity’s DNA. The project will reveal a new human anatomy — not the bones, muscles and sinews, but the complete genetic blueprint for a human being. Those working on the Human Genome Project claim that the new genetical anatomy will transform medicine and reduce human suffering in the twenty-first century. But others see the future through a darker glass, and fear that the project may open the door to a world peopled by Frankenstein’s monsters and disfigured by a new eugenics.
The genetic inheritance a baby receives from its parents at the moment of conception fixes much of its later development, determining characteristics as varied as whether it will have blue eyes or suffer from a life- threatening illness such as cystic fibrosis. The human genome is the compendium of all these inherited genetic instructions. Written out along the double helix of DNA are the chemical letters of the genetic text. It is an extremely long text, for the human genome contains more than 3 billion letters:
On the printed page it would fill about 7,000 volumes. Yet, within little more than a decade, the position of every letter and its relation to its neighbours will have been tracked down, analysed and recorded.
Considering how many letters there are in the human genome, nature is an excellent proof-reader. But sometimes there are mistakes. An error in a single ‘word’ — a gene — can give rise to the crippling condition of cystic fibrosis, the commonest genetic disorder among Caucasians. Errors in the genetic recipe for hemoglobin, the protein that gives blood its characteristic red colour and which carries oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body, give rise to the most common single-gene disorder in the world: thalassemia. More than 4,000 such single-gene defects are known to afflict humanity. The majority of them are fatal; the majority of the victims are children.
None of the single-gene disorders is a disease in the conventional sense, for which it would be possible to administer a curative drug: the defect is pre-programmed into every cell of the sufferer’s body. But there is hope of progress. In 1986, American researchers identified the genetic defect underlying one type of muscular dystrophy. In 1989, a team of American and Canadian biologists announced that they had found the site of the gene which, when defective, gives rise to cystic fibrosis. Indeed, not only had they located the gene, they had analysed the sequence of letters within it and had identified the mistake responsible for the condition. At the least, these scientific advances may offer a way of screening parents who might be at risk of transmitting a single-gene defect to any children that they conceive. Foetuses can be tested while in the womb, and if found free of the genetic defect, the parents will be relieved of worry and stress, knowing that they will be delivered of a baby free from the disorder.
In the mid-1980s, the idea gained currency within the scientific world that the techniques which were successfully deciphering disorder-related genes could be applied to a larger project if science can learn the genetic spelling of cystic fibrosis, why not attempt to find out how to spell ‘human’? Momentum quickly built up behind the Human Genome Project and its objective of ‘sequencing’ the entire genome – writing out all the letters in their correct order.
But the consequences of the Human Genome Project go far beyond a narrow focus on disease. Some of its supporters have made claims of great extravagance – that the Project will bring us to understand, at the most fundamental level, what it is to be human. Yet many people are concerned that such an emphasis on humanity’s genetic constitution may distort our sense of values, and lead us to forget that human life is more than just the expression of a genetic program written in the chemistry of DNA.
If properly applied, the new knowledge generated by the Human Genome Project may free humanity from the terrible scourge of diverse diseases. But if the new knowledge is not used wisely, it also holds the threat of creating new forms of discrimination and new methods of oppression. Many characteristics, such as height and intelligence, result not from the action of genes alone, but from subtle interactions between genes and the environment. What would be the implications if humanity were to understand, with precision, the genetic constitution which, given the same environment, will predispose one person towards a higher intelligence than another individual whose genes were differently shuffled?
Once before in this century, the relentless curiosity of scientific researchers brought to light forces of nature in the power of the atom, the mastery of which has shaped the destiny of nations and overshadowed all our lives. The Human Genome Project holds the promise that, ultimately, we may be able to alter our genetic inheritance if we so choose. But there is the central moral problem: how can we ensure that when we choose, we choose correctly? That such a potential is a promise and not a threat? We need only look at the past to understand the danger.
Questions 27-32
Complete the sentences below (Questions 27—32) with words taken from Reading Passage 3. Use NO MORE THAN
THREE WORDS OR A NUMBER for each answer Write your answers in boxes 27-32 on your answer sheet.
27 The passage compares the Project in scale to the………………… 28 The possible completion date of the Project is…………….. 29 To write out the human genome on paper would require books. 30 A genetic problem cannot be treated with drugs because strictly speaking it is not a……………………. 31 Research into genetic defects had its first success in the discovery of the cause of one form of………………. 32 The second success of research into genetic defects was to find the cause of……………..
Questions 33-40 Classify the following statements as representing
A the writer’s fears about the Human Genome Project B other people’s fears about the Project reported by the writer C the writer’s reporting of facts about the Project D the writer’s reporting of the long-term hopes for the Project
Write the appropriate letters A-D in boxes 33—40 on your answer sheet.
33 The Project will provide a new understanding of major diseases.
34 All the components which make up DNA are to be recorded and studied.
35 Genetic monsters may be created.
36 The correct order and inter-relation of all genetic data in all DNA will be mapped.
37 Parents will no longer worry about giving birth to defective offspring.
38 Being ‘human’ may be defined solely in terms of describable physical data.
39 People may be discriminated against in new ways.
40 From past experience humans may not use this new knowledge wisely.
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In the Native American Navajo nation, which sprawls across four states in the American south-west, the native language is dying. Most of its speakers are middle-aged or elderly. Although many students take classes in Navajo, the schools are run in English. Street signs’, supermarket goods and even their own newspaper are all in English, Not surprisingly, linguists doubt that any native speakers of Navajo will remain in a hundred years’ time.
Navajo is far from alone. Half the world’s 6,800 languages are likely to vanish within two generations – that’s one language lost every ten days. Never before has the planet’s linguistic diversity shrunk at such a pace. ‘At the moment, we are heading for about three or four languages dominating the world,’ says Mark Pagel, an evolutionary biologist at the University of Reading. ‘It’s a mass extinction, and whether we will ever rebound from the loss is difficult to know.’
Isolation breeds linguistic diversity: as a result, the world is peppered with languages spoken by only a few people. Only 250 languages have more than a million speakers, and at least 3,000 have fewer than 2,500. It is not necessarily these small languages that are about to disappear. Navajo is considered endangered despite having 150,000 speakers. What makes a language endangered is not just the number of speakers, but how old they are. If it is spoken by children it is relatively safe. The critically endangered languages are those that are only spoken by the elderly, according to Michael Krauss, director of the Alassk Native Language Center, in Fairbanks.
Why do people reject the language of their parents? It begins with a crisis of confidence, when a small community finds itself alongside a larger, wealthier society, says Nicholas Ostler, of Britain’s Foundation for Endangered Languages, in Bath. ‘People lose faith in their culture,’ he says. ‘When the next generation reaches their teens, they might not want to be induced into the old traditions.’
The change is not always voluntary quite often, governments try to kill off a minority language by banning its use in public or discouraging its use in schools, all to promote national unity. The former US policy of running Indian reservation schools in English, for example, effectively put languages such as Navajo on the danger list. But Salikoko Mufwene, who chairs the Linguistics department at the University of Chicago, argues that the deadliest weapon is not government policy but economic globalisation. ‘Native Americans have not lost pride in their language, but they have had to adapt to socio-economic pressures,’ he says. ‘They cannot refuse to speak English if most commercial activity is in English.’ But are languages worth saving? At the very least, there is a loss of data for the study of languages and their evolution, which relies on comparisons between languages, both living and dead. When an unwritten and unrecorded language disappears, it is lost to science.
Language is also intimately bound up with culture, so it may be difficult to preserve one without the other. ‘If a person shifts from Navajo to English, they lose something,’ Mufwene says. ‘Moreover, the loss of diversity may also deprive us of different ways of looking at the world,’ says Pagel. There is mounting evidence that learning a language produces physiological changes in the brain. ‘Your brain and mine are different from the brain of someone who speaks French, for instance,’ Pagel says, and this could affect our thoughts and perceptions. ‘The patterns and connections we make among various concepts may be structured by the linguistic habits of our community.’
So despite linguists’ best efforts, many languages will disappear over the next century. But a growing interest in cultural identity may prevent the direst predictions from coming true. ‘The key to fostering diversity is for people to learn their ancestral tongue, as well as the dominant language,’ says Doug Whalen, founder and president of the Endangered Language Fund in New Haven, Connecticut. ‘Most of these languages will not survive without a large degree of bilingualism,’ he says. In New Zealand, classes for children have slowed the erosion of Maori and rekindled interest in the language.
A similar approach in Hawaii has produced about 8,000 new speakers of Polynesian languages in the past few years. In California, ‘apprentice’ programmes have provided life support to several indigenous languages. Volunteer ‘apprentices’ pair up with one of the last living speakers of a Native American tongue to learn a traditional skill such as basket weaving, with instruction exclusively in the endangered language. After about 300 hours of training they are generally sufficiently fluent to transmit the language to the next generation. But Mufwene says that preventing a language dying out is not the same as giving it new life by using it every day. ‘Preserving a language is more like preserving fruits in a jar’ he says.
However, preservation can bring a language back from the dead. There are examples of languages that have survived in written form and then been revived by later generations. But a written form is essential for this, so the mere possibility of revival has led many speakers of endangered languages to develop systems of writing where none existed before.
Questions 1-4
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes1-4 on your answer sheet.
There are currently approximately 6,800 languages in the world. This great variety of languages came about largely as a result of geographical (1) ………………….. But in today’s world, factors such as government initiatives and (2) ……………….. are contributing to a huge decrease in the number of languages. One factor which may help to ensure that some endangered languages do not die out completely is people’s increasing appreciation of their (3) ……………………… This has been encouraged through programmes of language classes for children and through ‘apprentice’ schemes, in which the endangered language is used as the medium of instruction to teach people a (4) ……………………… Some speakers of endangered languages have even produced writing systems in order to help secure the survival of their mother tongue.
Questions 5-9 Look at the fol owing statements (Questions 5-9) and the list of people in the box below. Match each statement with the correct person A—E. Write the appropriate letter A-E in boxes 5-9 on your answer sheet. NB You may use any letter more than once.
5 Endangered languages cannot be saved unless people learn to speak more than one language. 6 Saving languages from extinction is not in itself a satisfactory goal. 7 The way we think may be determined by our language. 8 Young people often reject the established way of life in their community. 9 A change of language may mean a loss of traditional culture A Michael Krauss B Salikoke Mufwene C Nicholas Ostler E Doug Whalen D Mark Pagel
Questions 10-13 Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage 17 In boxes 10-13 on your answer sheet write YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer NO if the statement contradicts the view of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
10 The Navajo language will die out because it currently has too few speakers, 11 A large number of native speakers fails to guarantee the survival of a language. 12 National governments could do more to protect endangered languages. 13 The loss of linguistic diversity is inevitable.
Alternative Medicine in Australia
The first students to study alternative medicine at university level in Australia began their four-year, full-time course at the University of Technology, Sydney, in early 1994. Their course covered, among other therapies, acupuncture. The theory they learnt is based on the traditional Chinese explanation of this ancient healing art: that it can regulate the flow of ‘Qi’ or energy through pathways in the body. This course reflects how far some alternative therapies have come in their struggle for acceptance by the medical establishment.
Australia has been unusual in the Western world in having a very conservative attitude to natural or alternative therapies, according to Dr Paul Laver, a lecturer in Public Health at the University of Sydney. ‘We’ve had a tradition of doctors being fairly powerful and I guess they are pretty loath to allow any pretenders to their position to come into it.’ In many other industrialized countries, orthodox and alternative medicines have worked ‘hand in glove’ for years. In Europe, only orthodox doctors can prescribe herbal medicine. In Germany, plant remedies account for 10% of the national turnover of pharmaceutical. Americans made more visits to alternative therapist than to orthodox doctors in 1990, and each year they spend about $US 12 billion on the therapies that have not been scientifically tested.
Disenchantment with orthodox medicine has seen the popularity of alternative therapies in Australia climb steadily during the past 20 years. In a 1983 national health survey, 1.9% of people said they had contacted a chiropractor, naturopath, osteopath, acupuncturist or herbalist in the two weeks prior to the survey. By 1990, this figure had risen to 2.6% of the population. The 550,000 consultations with alternative therapists reported in the 1990 survey represented about an eighth of the total number of consultations with medically qualified personnel covered by the survey, according to Dr Laver and colleagues writing in the Australian Journal of Public Health in 1993. ‘A better educated and less accepting public has become disillusioned with the experts in general and increasingly skeptical about science and empirically based knowledge,’ they said. ‘The high standing of professionals, including doctors, has been eroded as a consequence.’
Rather than resisting or criticizing this trend, increasing numbers of Australian doctors, particularly younger ones, are forming group practices with alternative therapists or taking courses themselves, particularly in acupuncture and herbalism. Part of the incentive was financial, Dr Laver said. ‘The bottom line is that most general practitioners are business people. If they see potential clientele going elsewhere, they might want to be able to offer a similar service.’ In 1993, Dr Laver and his colleagues published a survey of 289 Sydney people who attended eight alternative therapists’ practices in Sydney. These practices offered a wide range of alternative therapies from 25 therapists. Those surveyed had experience chronic illnesses, for which orthodox medicine had been able to provide little relief. They commented that they liked the holistic approach of their alternative therapists and the friendly, concerned and detailed attention they had received. The cold, impersonal manner of orthodox doctors featured in the survey. An increasing exodus from their clinics, coupled with this and a number of other relevant surveys carried out in Australia, all pointing to orthodox doctors’ inadequacies, have led mainstream doctors themselves to begin to admit they could learn from the personal style of alternative therapists. Dr Patrick Store, President of the Royal College of General Practitioners, concurs that orthodox doctors could learn a lot about beside manner and advising patients on preventative health from alternative therapists.
According to the Australian Journal of Public Health, 18% of patients visiting alternative therapists do so because they suffer from muscular-skeletal complaints; 12% suffer from digestive problems, which is only 1% more than those suffering from emotional problems. Those suffering from respiratory complaints represent 7% of their patients, and candida sufferers represent an equal percentage. Headache sufferers and those complaining of general ill health represent 6% and 5% of patients respectively, and a further 4% see therapists for general health maintenance.
The survey suggested that complementary medicine is probably a better term than alternative medicine. Alternative medicine appears to be an adjunct, sought in times of disenchantment when conventional medicine seems not to offer the answer.
Questions 14 and 15 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
14 Traditionally, how have Australian doctors differed from doctors in many Western countries? A They have worked closely with pharmaceutical companies. B They have often worked alongside other therapists. C They have been reluctant to accept alternative therapists. D They have regularly prescribed alternative remedies.
15 In 1990, Americans A were prescribed more herbal medicines than in previous years. B consulted alternative therapists more often than doctors. C spent more on natural therapies than orthodox medicines. D made more complaints about doctors than in previous years.
Questions 16-23 Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage 2? YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer NO if the statement contradicts the views of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
16 Australians have been turning to alternative therapies in increasing numbers over the past 20 years. 17 Between 1983 and 1990 the numbers of patients visiting alternative therapists rose to include a further 8% of the population. 18 The 1990 survey related to 550,000 consultations with alternative therapists. 19 In the past, Australians had a higher opinion, of doctors than they do today. 20 Some Australian doctors -are retraining in alternative therapies. 21 Alternative therapists earn higher salaries than doctors. 22 The 1993 Sydney survey involved 289 patients who visited alternative therapists for acupuncture treatment. had long-term medical complaints.
Questions 24-26 Complete the vertical axis in the chart below. Write NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS.”
PLAY IS A SERIOUS BUSINESS
A Playing is a serious business. Children engrossed in a make-believe world, fox cubs play-fighting or kittens teasing a ball of string aren’t just having fun. Play may look like a carefree and exuberant way to pass the time before the hard work of adulthood comes along, but there’s much more to it than that. For a start, play can even cost animals their lives. Eighty per cent of deaths among juvenile fur seals occur because playing pups fail to spot predators approaching. It is also extremely expensive in terms of energy. Playful young animals use around two or three per cent of their energy cavorting, and in children that figure can be closer to fifteen per cent. ‘Even wo or three per cent is huge,’ says John Byers of Idaho University. ‘You just don’t find animals wasting energy like that,’ he adds. There must be a reason.
B But if play is not simply a developmental hiccup, as biologists once thought, why did it evolve? The latest idea suggests that play has evolved to build big brains. In other words, playing makes you intelligent. Playfulness, it seems, is common only among mammals, although a few of the larger-brained birds also indulge. Animals at play often use unique signs – tail- wagging in dogs, for example – to indicate that activity superficially resembling adult behavior is not really in earnest. A popular explanation of play has been that it helps juveniles develop the skills they will need to hunt, mate and socialise as adults. Another has been that it allows young animals to get in shape for adult life by improving their respiratory endurance. Both these ideas have been questioned in recent years.
C Take the exercise theory. If play evolved to build muscle or as a kind of endurance training, then you would expect to see permanent benefits. But Byers points out that the benefits of increased exercise disappear rapidly after training stops, so any improvement in endurance resulting from juvenile play would be lost by adulthood. ‘If the function of play was to get into shape,’ says Byers, ‘the optimum time for playing would depend on when it was most advantageous for the young of a particular species to do so, But it doesn’t work like that.’ Across species, play tends to peak about halfway through the suckling stage and then decline.
D Then there’s the skills-training hypothesis. At first glance, playing animals do appear to be practising die complex manoeuvres they will need in adulthood. But a closer inspection reveals this interpretation as too simplistic. In one study, behavioural ecologist Tim Caro, from the University of California, looked at the predatory play of kittens and their predatory behaviour when they reached adulthood. He found that the way the cats played had no significant effect on their hunting prowess in later life.
E Earlier this year, Sergio Pellis of Lethbridge University, Canada, reported that there is a strong positive link between brain size and playfulness among mammals in general. Comparing measurements for fifteen orders of mammal, he and his team found larger brains (for a given body size) are linked to greater playfulness. The converse was also found to be true. Robert Barton of Durham University believes that, because large brains are more sensitive to developmental stimuli than smaller brains, they require more play to help mould them for adulthood. “I concluded it’s to do with learning, and with the importance of environmental data to the brain during development,” he says.
F According to Byers, the timing of the playful stage in young animals provides an important clue to what’s going on. If you plot the amount of time a juvenile devotes to play each day over the course of its development, you discover a pattern typically associated with a ‘sensitive period’ – a brief development window during which the brain can actually be modified in ways that are not possible earlier or later in life. Think of the relative ease with which young children – but not infants or adults – absorb language. Other researchers have found that play in cats, rats and mice is at its most intense just as this ‘window of opportunity’ reaches its peak.
G ‘People have not paid enough attention to the amount of the brain activated by play,’ says Marc Bekoff from Colorado University. Bekoff studied coyote pups at play and found that the kind of behaviour involved was markedly more variable and unpredictable than that of adults. Such behaviour activates many different parts of the brain, he reasons. Bekoff likens it to a behavioural kaleidoscope, with animals at play jumping rapidly between activities. ‘They use behaviour from a lot of different contexts – predation, aggression, reproduction/ he says. ‘Their developing brain is getting all sorts of stimulation.
H Not only is more of the brain involved in play than was suspected, but it also seems to activate higher cognitive processes. ‘There’s enormous cognitive involvement in play’, says Bekoff. He points out that play often involves complex assessments of playmates, ideas of reciprocity and the use of specialised signals and rules. He believes that play creates a brain that has greater behavioural flexibility and improved potential for learning later in life. The idea is backed up by the work of Stephen Siviy of Gettysburg College. Siviy studied how bouts of play affected the brain’s levels of a particular chemical associated with the stimulation and growth of nerve cells. He was surprised by the extent of the activation. ‘Play just lights everything up/ he says. By allowing link-ups between brain areas that might not normally communicate with each other, play may enhance creativity.
I What might further experimentation suggest about the way children are raised in many societies today? We already know that rat pups denied the chance to play grow smaller brain components and fail to develop the ability to apply social rules when they interact with their peers. With schooling beginning earlier and becoming increasingly exam-orientated, play is likely to get even less of a look-in. Who knows what the result of that will be?
Questions27-32
Reading Passage 3 has nine paragraphs labelled A-I. Which paragraph contains the following information? Write the correct letter A-I in boxes 27-32 on your answer sheet. NB You may use any letter more than once.
27 the way play causes unusual connections in the brain which are beneficial 28 insights from recording how much time young animals spend playing 29 a description of the physical hazards that can accompany play 30 a description of the mental activities which are exercised and developed during play 31 the possible effects that a reduction in play opportunities will have on humans 32 the classes of animals for which play is important
Questions 33-35 Choose THREE letters A-F. Write your answers in boxes 33-35 on your answer sheet. The list below gives some ways of regarding play.
Which THREE ways are mentioned by the writer of the text? A a rehearsal for later adult activities B a method animals use to prove themselves to their peer group C an activity intended to build up strength for adulthoood D a means of communicating feelings E a defensive strategy F an activity assisting organ growth
Questions 36-40 Look at the following researchers (Questions 36-40) and the list of findings below. Match each researcher with the correct finding. Write the correct letter A-H in boxes 36-40 on your answer sheet.
36 Robert Barton 37 Marc Bekofif 38 John Byers 39 Sergio Pellis 40 Stephen Siviy
List of Findings
A There is a link between a specific substance in the brain and playing B Play provides input concerning physical surroundings C Varieties of play can be matched to different stages of evolutionary history D There is a tendency for mammals with smaller brains to play less E Play is not a form of fitness training for the future F Some species of larger brained birds engage in play G A wide range of activities are combined during play H Play is a method of teaching survival techniques
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Overpopulation, climate change, mass migration, farming issues and the use of natural resources are all affecting our relationship with terra firma, and it has never been more complicated. It is increasingly looking like Earth’s land is being overlooked rather than valued as precious resource.
For those living in Malé, the overcrowded capital of the Maldives, there is no choice but to build upwards. Caged by the sea, they have no more land to spread onto, yet the city’s population has soared by nearly 52% since 2006. The last census in 2014 counted 158,000 people crammed into the city’s 5.7 sq km of space, and officials say the figure has since grown further.
Space is such a premium in Malé that pavements are often less than one metre wide, forcing pedestrians to walk in single file, while many streets have no sidewalk at all.
Malé, capital of the Maldives, is emblematic of modern-day land issues: A small, increasingly urbanising space with a skyrocketing population. Rents have risen exorbitantly and, in some of the poorest areas, up to 40 people can be squeezed into buildings with just 23.2 sq metres of space – about the same size as a small studio flat.
With so many people living under each other’s feet, crime, drugs and domestic violence have risen alarmingly while the city frequently runs out of water. An entirely new island has risen next door out of the sea itself simply from the city’s garbage.
In the early 1990s the tallest buildings in the city were only two storeys high, whereas now the average height is eight storeys and some are as high as 25 storeys high. People are coming here because this is where the health, education and jobs are, but overpopulation is leading to many socioeconomic problems.
Although extreme, Malé is an example in miniature of something that is happening on a far larger scale around the world. With 83 million more people appearing on the planet every year, rising populations are placing increasing pressure on the land.
The UN’s latest estimates state that there are 7.6 billion people jostling for space on Earth at present and that number will rise to 9.8 billion by 2050. By the end of the century, their projections say there could be 11.2 billion people on our planet.
With 83 million more people appearing on the planet every year, rising populations are placing increasing pressure on the land. Each of those people will need somewhere to live, a place to work and fertile land to provide them with food. They will need water and energy to stay warm or to light their way at night. They will want roads to drive on and places to park. For the lucky ones, there will be space for their pastimes and leisure activities.
At first, it can be easy to dismiss fears that mankind may one day run out of space as ridiculous. Physically, the land can easily accommodate 11 billion people – there are around 51.7million sq miles of ice-free land on the planet.
But large tracts of land remain virtually uninhabitable due to their climate or their remote location: Enormous tracts of Siberia are too inhospitable to be lived upon, and the huge landmass at the centre of Australia is too arid to support many people, meaning the majority of its population is clustered along its coastline.
The cities and towns we live in account for less than 3% of the Earth’s total land area, but between 35% and 40% is used for agriculture. As populations grow, many fear that more h land will be used up to grow more food. And land management has a lot to do with resource management – what eat, how we grow it, and how we eat it.
To feed the world’s growing population, a study by researchers at Stanford University estimated that between 10,400-18,900 sq miles of additional land will be required, and that there is a reserve of 1.7 million sq miles thought to be suitable for growing crops left in the world.
The researchers predicted that increasing demand for food, biofuels, industrial forestry and the spread of urbanisation will result in this reserve of land being completely used up by 2050.
The bad news is that the demand for new cropland and pastures for animals is already thought to have caused 80% of the deforestation taking place around the world today, wiping out large areas of rich biodiversity and trees that act as natural sinks for greenhouse gases.
The way we use land right now is extremely inefficient, so much of our land is being used to grow food for livestock – 75% of the world’s agricultural land is used for feeding animals that we then eat ourselves. About 40% of the food grown in the world is also never eaten by anybody – it is thrown away.
Questions 1-4. Read the text and choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. Write the correct letter on your answer sheet for questions 1-4.
1 The height of most city buildings are now measured to be at a general level of A 25-storeys B 2-storeys C 8-storeys D 40-storeys 2 The estimated spare land available that is considered to be good for agricultural use, such as the growing of vegetables is A 51.7m sq miles B 1.7m sq miles C 10,000 sq miles D 18,900 sq miles 3 The current population figure produced by the United Nations for our planet is an estimated A 11.2 billion B 11 billion C 7.6 billion D 9.8 billion 4 The percentage figure for the food we humans grow on Earth that is discarded as waste is approximately A 75% B 3% C 52% D 40%
Questions 5-8. Do the following statements agree with the information given in the passage on the previous page? In boxes 5-8 on your answer sheet, write: TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information. NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
5 From 2006 onwards, the rate of city dwellers in the Maldivian capital has grown at just under 50%. 6 Walking single file is common on the pavement due to the crowding. 7 Water shortages are an almost every day occurrence in the city mentioned. 8 Large portions of the land on Earth are completely unsuited for human occupation.
Questions 9-12. Complete the sentences below. Write ONE OR TWO WORDS ONLY to complete the sentences. Write your answers in boxes 9-12 on your answer sheet.
Almost 52 million sq km of land is available to handle the more than 11 billion projected populations as it is classified as being 9……………… Whereas cities account for less than 5% of land usage, just over a third of the land available on Earth is used for 10………………. The loss of vast expanses of healthy forests that act naturally to absorb 11………………….A brand new piece of man-made land has been formed besides the current city, jumping out from the sea itself, made solely by using unwanted 12…………………
READING PASSAGE 2.
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 13-27 which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.
THE MONSTER SHIPS THAT CHANGED HOW WE TRAVEL
When the world’s then-largest ocean liner embarked on its first transatlantic voyage in September 1907, thousands of spectators gathered at the docks of Liverpool to watch. Cunard’s RMS Lusitania had been outfitted with a new type of engine that differed from that of its rivals – and it would go on to break the speed record for the fastest ocean crossing not once, but twice.
Between 1850 and 1900, three British passenger lines – Cunard, Inman and White Star -dominated transatlantic travel. Toward the end of the century, as increasing numbers of emigrants sought passage to the US and a growing class of Gilded Age travellers demanded speed and luxury, corporate rivalry intensified. Pressure from other European lines forced the British companies to add amenities like swimming pools and restaurants.
Not unlike today’s rivalries between, say, aircraft manufacturers like Airbus and Boeing, each raced to make its ocean liners the largest, fastest and most opulent. In the process, they launched the modern age of leisure cruising – and developed innovations and technologies that continue to be used on cruise ships today.
In the mid-19th Century, there were two main players. Inman’s inaugural steamship, launched in 1850, made it the first major British line to replace traditional side-mounted paddlewheels with a screw propeller – an apparatus with fixed blades turning on a central axis. With the added speed and fuel efficiency this brought, plus a sleek iron hull that was more durable than wood, Inman established itself as a company unafraid to try new technology for faster crossings.
Inman’s main rival, Cunard, focused on safety instead. The Cunard way was to let competitors introduce new-fangled technology and let them deal with the setbacks, once that technology had proved itself, only then would Cunard consider using it.
But Cunard risked being left behind both by Inman and by a new rival which burst onto the scene in 1870 – the White Star line’s splashy debut included five huge ocean liners, dubbed floating hotels. Their flagship, RMS Oceanic, launched in 1871 and the contrast with Cunard was stark, for example where Oceanic had bathtubs, Cunard offered a sink.
In 1888, Inman introduced ships which no longer required auxiliary sails, giving ocean liners a similar look to the one they have today.
Cunard, meanwhile, ventured into the new world of telecommunications by installing the first Marconi wireless stations, which allowed radio operators to transmit messages at sea, on its sister ships RMS Lucania and RMS Campania. First-class passengers could even book European hotels by wireless before reaching port.
In 1897, Germany entered the fray with the SS Amerika, wowed its well-heeled guests by introducing the first à la carte restaurant at sea: the Ritz-Carlton, brainchild of Paris hotelier Cesar Ritz and renowned chef Auguste Escoffier. It allowed guests to order meals at their leisure and dine with their friends rather than attend rigidly scheduled seatings – a forerunner of the kind of freestyle dining seen on today’s cruise ships.
To complicate matters, American banking tycoon JP Morgan was buying up smaller companies to create a US-based shipping-and-railroad monopoly. In 1901, White Star became his biggest acquisition. Suddenly, the battles weren’t only in the boardrooms: building the world’s top ocean liners was now a point of national pride.
With the help of a £2.6 million government loan (equivalent to more than £261 million today), Britain’s Cunard line launched the massive twins RMS Lusitania and RMS Mauretania. Both had the first steam turbine engines of any superliner.
White Star fought back with RMS Olympic and RMS Titanic that would feature double hulls and watertight bulkheads. With standard reciprocating engines, they were slower than the Cunarders, but surpassed them in size and elegance, even debuted the first indoor swimming pools at sea.
History changed course when Titanic hit an iceberg on 14 April 1912 and sank on her first transatlantic voyage. As a result of the tragedy, safety regulations were updated to require lifeboat berths for every passenger and 24-hour radio surveillance (rules which are still in place).
But there were more challenges to come. World War One broke out in 1914 and European governments requisitioned liners for war service. Despite a post-war liner-building boom, US anti-immigration laws reduced the number of transatlantic emigrants – the liners’ bread and butter – in the 1920s.
In 1957, more people crossed the Atlantic by ship than ever before, but by the following year, jet passengers outnumbered them. Cunard said flying was a just fad, and that it was not a genuine concern.
Despite Cunard’s best efforts, by the late 1950s more people were flying than taking ships to their destinations. Air travel and high operating costs doomed most transatlantic liners by the 1970s – only Cunard’s RMS Queen Mary 2 makes regular transatlantic crossings now.
Questions 13-18. Label as true, false, or not given (T / F / NG). Do the following statements agree with the information given in passage 2? Write your answers in the boxes for questions 13-18 as: TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
13 The competition between modern day airline manufacturers is very much like the early days of ship construction. 14 Inman was fearful of using the latest available materials alongside progressive construction methods to cut crossing times. 15 Following the invention of the radio, second class guests could reserve rooms to stay in the cities they were heading to from the ship they were on. 16 By borrowing a substantial amount of money, a leading British company built a couple of huge identical ships with the very first steam engine propulsion. 17 Crossing the Atlantic is done by the one remaining cruise ship these days on a scheduled timetable. 18 A German company introduced fixed and tightly controlled set-seating meal times on their newest ships.
Questions 19–23. Match letters A-C, to the statements numbered below 19-23.
Which company does each of the following statements refer to? 19 Being acquired by a high-powered financier meant that the proud thoughts of a nation were at stake. 20 Claiming air travel was a short-term temporary fashionable form of travel not to be overly worried about. 21 Using alternate newer technologies rendered older wind powered systems obsolete giving them the modern-day look. 22 Patiently waiting for their rivals to prove that new technologies and systems worked before implementing them themselves. 23 Producing massive ocean going vessels that gained them the nickname ‘hotels that float’. A Cunard B Inman C White Star
Questions 24–27. Complete the sentences below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO TO THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.
It was a couple of times in the early 1900s that the newest ship of the day broke the 24…………………… As European firms excelled, it forced the U.K.-based companies to improve their ships and in particular to 25…………………… Due to a terrible disaster, new rules were put in place after that we can see today are 26……………………. It was often whole families in the early part of the 20th Century, moving from Europe to America that was known to the industry as their 27…………………….
READING PASSAGE 3.
A. When you get tired of typical sight-seeing, when you have had enough of monuments, statues, and cathedrals, then think outside the box. Read the four paragraphs below about the innovative types of tourism emerging around the globe and discover ways to spice up your itinerary.
B. One could eat your way through your travels if one wished. A comparatively new kind of tourism is gaining popularity across the world. In this, food and beverages are the main factors that motivate a person to travel to a particular destination. Combining food, drink and culture, this type of travel provides for an authentic experience, the food and restaurants reflecting the local and unique flavors of a particular region or country. Studies conducted into this travel phenomenon have shown that food plays, consciously or unconsciously, an important part in the vacations of a good number of travelers. Those trying this are looking for a more participatory style of holiday experience. Analysts have noticed a shift from ‘passive observation’ to ‘interaction and involvement’ in tourists, whereby the visitor comes into close contact with locals and their way of life rather than remaining a mere spectator.
C. This is a novel approach to tourism in which visitors do not visit the ordinary tourist attractions in traditional fashion. Rather, they let their whims be their guides! Destinations are chosen not on their standard touristic merit but on the basis of an idea or concept often involving elements of humor, serendipity, and chance. One example is known as Monopoly-travel. Participants armed with the local version of a Monopoly game board explore a city at the whim of a dice roll, shuttling between elegant shopping areas and the local water plant – with the occasional visit to jail.
Another example is Counter-travel, which requires you to take snapshots with your back turned to landmarks like the Eiffel Tower or Big Ben. Joël Henry, the French founder of Latourex, has developed dozens of ideas since coming up with the concept in 1990. The traveler must increase his or her receptiveness, in this way, no trip is ever planned or predictable. Henry’s most unusual invention is known as “Erotravel”, where a couple heads to the same town but travels there separately. The challenge is to find one another abroad. He and his wife have engaged in the pursuit in five cities and have managed to meet up every time.
D. This involves any crop-based or animal based operation or activity that brings visitors to a farm or ranch. It has recently become widespread in America, and participants can choose from a wide range of activities that include picking fruits and vegetables, riding horses, tasting honey, learning about wine and cheese making, or shopping in farm gift shops for local and regional products or handicrafts. For rural economies struggling to stay afloat in this age of industrial farming, it has become an important and marketable opportunity for improving the incomes and potential economic viability of small farms and rural communities. In western North Carolina, the organization ‘HandMade in America’ is using this method to develop their local economy and craft trades, and to educate visitors about farming practices. On their website, it is described as a niche market. As people are becoming more interested in the ecological importance of local food production, related projects reinforce the need to support local growers and allow visitors to experience the relationship between food and our natural environment.
E. This is the trend of traveling to destinations that are first seen in movies, for instance, touring London in a high-speed boat like James Bond or visiting the stately homes that are seen in Jane Austin films. The term was first coined in the US press in the New York Post by journalist Gretchen Kelly, who wrote a 2007 article entitled “The sexiest film locations from 2007 to visit now.” Currently, summer blockbuster movies are being used as themed marketing tools by companies like Expedia and Fandango, who are promoting trips to where the Steven Spielberg film, Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull was made. Corporations as well as convention and tourism boards are exploiting the trend, creating their own location based travel maps, like the Elizabeth: The Golden Age movie map published by VisitBritain, Britain’s official travel and tourism guide. Other travel itineraries have been created by tourism boards for movies including The Da Vinci Code (France), In Bruges (Belgium), and P.S. I Love You (Ireland). Although a new concept, it’s fast becoming a major factor in the choices travelers make in an increasingly tight economic climate. If a traveler has seen a site in a major motion picture, its media exposure makes it a compelling choice for a family vacation or honeymoon.
Questions 28-31. Reading Passage 3 has five sections, A–E. Choose the correct heading for sections B–E from the list of headings below. Write the correct number, i–viii, in boxes 28–31 on your answer sheet. List of Headings
iExperimental Tourism
ii. Cuisine Tourism
iiiAdventure Tourism
iv. Fashion Tourism
vPhotographic Travels
vi. Set-jetting.
viiAgritourism.
viii. Introduction
ixCapital Cities
28 Section B 29 Section C 30 Section D 31 Section E
Questions 32–35. Look at the following statements (Questions 32–35). Read passage 3 and complete the sentences using one word only from the text. Write the answers for questions 32-35 on your answer sheet.
Putting together and enjoying culinary delights ensures the trip is more 32……..…………… Moving quickly between more mundane public service facilities and malls that are more 33……………………. Film sets for hugely popular blockbuster movies are attracting couples to go there for their 34……………………. In the USA, visiting a strawberry picking field or listening to lectures on producing good wine is becoming increasingly 35…………………….
Questions 36-39. Label as true, false or not given (T / F / NG). Do the following statements agree with the information given in passage 2? Write your answers in the boxes for questions 36-39 as: TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
36 Enjoying good foods is the most critical part of any good holiday for the majority of travellers. 37 Taking photos facing directly opposite from and facing away from a popular tourist site is a need for Counter-travel. 38 People are gaining appreciation for the need to back those producing local grown vegetables and other crops. 39 The term for promoting travel related to the film industry was first used in the British media. Question 40. Read the text and choose the best match for the underlined phrase in the text, from the three options, A-C.
For people who are bored of doing the usual activities such as looking at the common tourist attractions, they need to reconsider things from a different perspective. This means to think is a way that is …………………. A unique. B new. C creative.
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For the century before Johnson’s Dictionary was published in 1775, there had been concern about the state of the English language. There was no standard way of speaking or writing and no agreement as to the best way of bringing some order to the chaos of English spelling. Dr Johnson provided the solution.
There had, of course, been dictionaries in the past, the first of these being a little book of some 120 pages, compiled by a certain Robert Cawdray, published in 1604 under the title A Table Alphabetical of hard usual English words. Like the various dictionaries that came after it during the seventeenth century, Cawdray’s tended to concentrate on ‘scholarly’ words; one function of the dictionary was to enable its student to convey an impression of fine learning.
Beyond the practical need to make order out of chaos, the rise of dictionaries is associated with the rise of the English middle class, who were anxious to define and circumscribe the various worlds to conquer -lexical as well as social and commercial. It is highly appropriate that Dr Samuel Johnson, the very model of an eighteenth-century literary man, as famous in his own time as in ours, should have published his Dictionary at the very beginning of the heyday of the middle class.
Johnson was a poet and critic who raised common sense to the heights of genius. His approach to the problems that had worried writers throughout the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries was intensely practical. Up until his time, the task of producing a dictionary on such a large scale had seemed impossible without the establishment of an academy to make decisions about right and wrong usage. Johnson decided he did not need an academy to settle arguments about language; he would write a dictionary himself; and he would do it single- handed. Johnson signed the contract for the Dictionary with the bookseller Robert Dosley at a breakfast held at the Golden Anchor Inn near Holborn Bar on 18 June 1764. He was to be paid £1,575 in instalments, and from this he took money to rent 17 Gough Square, in which he set up his ‘dictionary workshop’.
James Boswell, his biographer described the garret where Johnson worked as ‘fitted up like a counting house’ with a long desk running down the middle at which the copying clerks would work standing up. Johnson himself was stationed on a rickety chair at an ‘old crazy deal table’ surrounded by a chaos of borrowed books. He was also helped by six assistants, two of whom died whilst the Dictionary was still in preparation.
The work was immense; filing about eighty large notebooks (and without a library to hand), Johnson wrote the definitions of over 40,000 words, and illustrated their many meanings with some 114,000 quotations drawn from English writing on every subject, from the Elizabethans to his own time. He did not expel to achieve complete originality. Working to a deadline, he had to draw on the best of all previous dictionaries, and to make his work one of heroic synthesis. In fact, it was very much more. Unlike his predecessors, Johnson treated English very practically, as a living language, with many different shades of meaning. He adopted his definitions on the principle of English common law – according to precedent. After its publication, his Dictionary was not seriously rivalled for over a century.
After many vicissitudes the Dictionary was finally published on 15 April 1775. It was instantly recognised as a landmark throughout Europe. ‘This very noble work;’ wrote the leading Italian lexicographer, will be a perpetual monument of Fame to the Author, an Honour to his own Country in particular, and a general Benefit to the republic of Letters throughout Europe. The fact that Johnson had taken on the Academies of Europe and matched them (everyone knew that forty French academics had taken forty years to produce the first French national dictionary) was cause for much English celebration.
Johnson had worked for nine years, ‘with little assistance of the learned, and without any patronage of the great; not in the soft obscurities of retirement, or under the shelter of academic bowers, but amidst inconvenience and distraction, in sickness and in sorrow’. For all its faults and eccentricities his two-volume work is a masterpiece and a landmark, in his own words, ‘setting the orthography, displaying the analogy, regulating the structures, and ascertaining the significations of English words’. It is the cornerstone of Standard English, an achievement which, in James Boswell’s words, ‘conferred stability on the language of his country’.
The Dictionary, together with his other writing, made Johnson famous and so well esteemed that his friends were able to prevail upon King George III to offer him a pension. From then on, he was to become the Johnson of folklore.
Questions 1-3
Choose THREE letters A-H. Write your answers in boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet. NB Your answers may be given in any order.
Which THREE of the following statements are true of Johnson’s Dictionary?
A It avoided all scholarly words.
B It was the only English dictionary in general use for 200 years.
C It was famous because of the large number of people involved.
D It focused mainly on language from contemporary texts.
E There was a time limit for its completion.
F It ignored work done by previous dictionary writers.
G It took into account subtleties of meaning.
H Its definitions were famous for their originality.
Questions 4-7
Complete the summary. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
In 1764 Dr Johnson accepted the contract to produce a dictionary. Having rented a garret, he took on a number of (4) ……………….. , who stood at a long central desk. Johnson did not have a (5)…………………. available to him, but eventually produced definitions of in excess of 40,000 words written down in 80 large notebooks. On publication, the Dictionary was immediately hailed in many European countries as a landmark. According to his biographer, James Boswell, Johnson’s principal achievement was to bring (6) ………………… to the English language. As a reward for his hard work, he was granted a (7) ……………….. by the king.
Questions 8-13
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1? In boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement is true according to the passage FALSE if the statement is false according to the passage NOT GIVEN if the information is not given in the passage
8) The growing importance of the middle classes led to an increased demand for dictionaries. 9) Johnson has become more well known since his death. 10) Johnson had been planning to write a dictionary for several years. 11) Johnson set up an academy to help with the writing of his Dictionary. 12) Johnson only received payment for his Dictionary on its completion. 13) Not all of the assistants survived to see the publication of the Dictionary.
Nature or Nurture?
A A few years ago, in one of the most fascinating and disturbing experiments in behavioural psychology, Stanley Milgram of Yale University tested 40 subjects from all walks of life for their willingness to obey instructions given by a ‘leader’ in a situation in which the subjects might feel a personal distaste for the actions they were called upon to perform. Specifically, Milgram told each volunteer ‘teacher-subject’ that the experiment was in the noble cause of education, and was designed to test whether or not punishing pupils for their mistakes would have a positive effect on the pupils’ ability to learn.
B Milgram’s experimental set-up involved placing the teacher-subject before a panel of thirty switches with labels ranging from ’15 volts of electricity (slight shock)’ to ‘450 volts (danger – severe shock)’ in steps of 15 volts each. The teacher-subject was told that whenever the pupil gave the wrong answer to a question, a shock was to be administered, beginning at the lowest level and increasing in severity with each successive wrong answer. The supposed ‘pupil’ was in reality an actor hired by Milgram to simulate receiving the shocks by emitting a spectrum of groans, screams and writhings together with an assortment of statements and expletives denouncing both the experiment and the experimenter. Milgram told the teacher-subject to ignore the reactions of the pupil, and to administer whatever level of shock was called for, as per the rule governing the experimental situation of the moment.
C As the experiment unfolded, the pupil would deliberately give the wrong answers to questions posed by the teacher, thereby bringing on various electrical punishments, even up to the danger level of 300 volts and beyond. Many of the teacher-subjects balked at administering the higher levels of punishment, and turned to Milgram with questioning looks and/or complaints about continuing the experiment. In these situations, Milgram calmly explained that the teacher-subject was to ignore the pupil’s cries for mercy and carry on with the experiment. If the subject was still reluctant to proceed, Milgram said that it was important for the sake of the experiment that the procedure be followed through to the end. His final argument was, ‘You have no other choice. You must go on.’ What Milgram was trying to discover was the number of teacher-subjects who would be willing to administer the highest levels of shock, even in the face of strong personal and moral revulsion against the rules and conditions of the experiment.
D Prior to carrying out the experiment, Milgram explained his idea to a group of 39 psychiatrists and asked them to predict the average percentage of people in an ordinary population who would be willing to administer the highest shock level of 450 volts. The overwhelming consensus was that virtually all the out teacher-subjects would refuse to obey the experimenter. The psychiatrists felt that ‘most subjects would not go beyond 150 volts’ and they further anticipated that only four per cent would go up to 300 volts. Furthermore, they thought that only a lunatic fringe of about one in 1,000 would give the highest shock of 450 volts. Furthermore, they thought that only a lunatic cringe of about one in 1,000 would give the highest shock of 450 volts.
E What were the actual results? Well, over 60 per cent of the teacher-subjects continued to obey Milgram up to the 450-volt limit! In repetitions of the experiment in other countries, the percentage of obedient teacher-subjects was even higher, reaching 85 per cent in one country. How can we possibly account for this vast discrepancy between what calm, rational, knowledgeable people predict in the comfort of their study and what pressured, flustered, but cooperative teachers’ actually do in the laboratory of real life?
F One’s first inclination might be to argue that there must be some sort of built-in animal aggression instinct that was activated by the experiment, and that Milgram’s teacher-subjects were just following a genetic need to discharge this pent-up primal urge onto the pupil by administering the electrical shock. A modern hard-core sociobiologist might even go so far as to claim that this aggressive instinct evolved as an advantageous trait, having been of survival value to our ancestors in their struggle against the hardships of life on the plains and in the caves, ultimately finding its way into our genetic make-up as a remnant of our ancient animal ways.
G An alternative to this notion of genetic programming is to see the teacher-subjects’ actions as a result of the social environment under which the experiment was carried out. As Milgram himself pointed out, ‘Most subjects in the experiment see their behaviour in a larger context that is benevolent and useful to society – the pursuit of scientific truth. The psychological laboratory has a strong claim to legitimacy and evokes trust and confidence in those who perform there. An action such as shocking a victim, which in isolation appears evil, acquires a completely different meaning when placed in this setting.’
H Thus, in this explanation the subject merges his unique personality and personal and moral code with that of larger institutional structures, surrendering individual properties like loyalty, self-sacrifice and discipline to the service of malevolent systems of authority. I Here we have two radically different explanations for why so many teacher-subjects were willing to forgo their sense of personal responsibility for the sake of an institutional authority figure. The problem for biologists, psychologists and anthropologists is to sort which of these two polar explanations is more plausible. This, in essence, is the problem of modern sociobiology – to discover the degree to which hard-wired genetic programming dictates, or at least strongly biases, the interaction of animals and humans with their environment, that is, their behaviour. Put another way, sociobiology is concerned with elucidating the biological basis of all behaviour.
Questions 14-19 Reading Passage 2 has nine paragraphs, A-I. Which paragraph contains the following information? Write the correct letter A-I in boxes 14-19 on your answer sheet.
14 a biological explanation of the teacher-subjects’ behaviour 15 the explanation Milgram gave the teacher-subjects for the experiment 16 the identity of the pupils 17 the expected statistical outcome 18 the general aim of sociobiological study 19 the way Milgram persuaded the teacher-subjects to continue
Questions 20-22 Choose the correct letter. A, B. C or D. Write your answers in boxes 20-22 on your answer sheet.
20 The teacher-subjects were told that they were testing whether A a 450-volt shock was dangerous B punishment helps learning C the pupils were honest D they were suited to teaching
21 The teacher-subjects were instructed to A stop when a pupil asked them to B denounce pupils who made mistakes C reduce the shock level after a correct answer D give punishment according to a rule
22 Before the experiment took place the psychiatrists A believed that a shock of 150 volts was too dangerous B failed to agree on how the teacher-subjects would respond to instructions C underestimated the teacher-subjects’ willingness to comply with experimental procedure D thought that many of the teacher-subjects would administer a shock of 450 volts
Questions 23-26 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2? In boxes 23-26 on your answer sheet, write TRUE FALSE NOT GIVEN
23 Several of the subjects were psychology students at Yale University. 24 Some people may believe that the teacher-subjects’ behaviour could be explained as a positive survival mechanism. 25 In a sociological explanation, personal values are more powerful than authority. 26 Milgram’s experiment solves an important question in sociobiology.
The Truth About the Environment
For many environmentalists, the world seems to be getting worse. They have developed a hit-list of our main fears: that natural resources are running out; that the population is ever growing, leaving less and less to eat; that species are becoming extinct in vast numbers, and that the planet’s air and water are becoming ever more polluted.
But a quick look at the facts shows a different picture. First, energy and other natural resources have become more abundant, not less so, since the book ‘The limits to Growth’ was published in 1972 by a group of scientists. Second, more food is now produced per head of the world’s population than at any time in history. Fewer people are starving. Third, although species are indeed becoming extinct, only about 0.7% of them are expelled to disappear in the next 50 years, not 25-50%, as has so often been predicted. And finally, most forms of environmental pollution either appear to have been exaggerated, or are transient – associated with the early phases of industrialisation and therefore best cured not by restricting economic growth, but by accelerating it. One form of pollution – the release of greenhouse gases that causes global warming – does appear to be a phenomenon that is going to extend well into our future, but its total impact is unlikely to pose a devastating problem. A bigger problem may well turn out to be an inappropriate response to it. Yet opinion polls suggest that many people nurture the belief that environmental standards are declining and four factors seem to cause this disjunction between perception and reality.
One is the lopsidedness built into scientific research. Scientific funding goes mainly to areas with many problems. That may be wise policy but it will also create an impression that many more potential problems exist than is the case.
Secondly, environmental groups need to be noticed by the mass media. They also need to keep the money rolling in. Understandably, perhaps, they sometimes overstate their arguments. In 1997, for example, the World Wide Fund for Nature issued a press release entitled: ‘Two thirds of the world’s forests lost forever’. The truth turns out to be nearer 20%.
Though these groups are run overwhelmingly by selfless folk, they nevertheless share many of the characteristics of other lobby groups. That would matter less if people applied the same degree of scepticism to environmental lobbying as they do to lobby groups in other fields. A trade organisation arguing for, say, weaker pollution control is instantly seen as self-interested. Yet a green organisation opposing such a weakening is seen as altruistic, even if an impartial view of the controls in question might suggest they are doing more harm than good.
A third source of confusion is the attitude of the media. People are dearly more curious about bad news than good. Newspapers and broadcasters are there to provide what the public wants. That, however, can lead to significant distortions of perception. An example was America’s encounter with EI Nino in 1997 and 1998. This climatic phenomenon was accused of wrecking tourism, causing allergies, melting the ski-slopes, and causing 22 deaths. However, according to an article in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, the damage it did was estimated at US$4 billion but the benefits amounted to some US$19 billion. These came from higher winter temperatures (which saved an estimated 850 lives, reduced heating costs and diminished spring floods caused by meltwaters).
The fourth factor is poor individual perception. People worry that the endless rise in the amount of stuff everyone throws away will cause the world to run out of places to dispose of waste. Yet, even if America’s trash output continues to rise as it has done in the past, and even if the American population doubles by 2100, all the rubbish America produces through the entire 21st century will still take up only one-12,000th of the area of the entire United States.
So what of global warming? As we know, carbon dioxide emissions are causing the planet to warm. The best estimates are that the temperatures will rise by 2-3°C in this century, causing considerable problems, at a total cost of US$5,000 billion.
Despite the intuition that something drastic needs to be done about such a costly problem, economic analyses dearly show it will be far more expensive to cut carbon dioxide emissions radically than to pay the costs of adaptation to the increased temperatures. A model by one of the main authors of the United Nations Climate Change Panel shows how an expected temperature increase of 2.1 degrees in 2100 would only be diminished to an increase of 1.9 degrees. Or to put it another way, the temperature increase that the planet would have experienced in 2094 would be postponed to 2100.
So, this does not prevent global warming, but merely buys the world six years. Yet the cost of reducing carbon dioxide emissions, for the United States alone, will be higher than the cost of solving the world’s single, most pressing health problem: providing universal access to clean drinking water and sanitation. Such measures would avoid 2 million deaths every year, and prevent half a billion people from becoming seriously ill.
It is crucial that we look at the facts if we want to make the best possible decisions for the future. It may be costly to be overly optimistic – but more costly still to be too pessimistic.
Questions 27-32 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 3? In boxes 27-32 on your answer sheet, write YES if the statement agrees with the writer’s claims NO if the statement contradicts the writer’s claims NOT GIVEN if there is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
27 Environmentalists take a pessimistic view of the world for a number of reasons. 28 Data on the Earth’s natural resources has only been collected since 1972. 29 The number of starving people in the world has increased in recent years. 30 Extinct species are being replaced by new species. 31 Some pollution problems have been correctly linked to industrialisation. 32 It would be best to attempt to slow down economic growth.
Questions 33-37 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. Write your answers in boxes 33-37 on your answer sheet.
33 What aspect of scientific research does the writer express concern about in paragraph 4? A the need to produce results B the lack of financial support C the selection of areas to research D the desire to solve every research problem
34 The writer quotes from the Worldwide Fund for Nature to illustrate how A influential the mass media can be B effective environmental groups can be C the mass media can help groups raise funds D environmental groups can exaggerate their claims
35 What is the writer’s main point about lobby groups in paragraph 6? A Some are more active than others B Some are better organised than others C Some receive more criticism than others D Some support more important issues than others
36 The writer suggests that newspapers print items that are intended to A educate readers B meet their readers’ expectations C encourage feedback from readers D mislead readers
37 What does the writer say about America’s waste problem? A It will increase in line with population growth B It is not as important as we have been led to believe C It has been reduced through public awareness of the issues D It is only significant in certain areas of the country
Questions 38-40. Complete the summary with the list of words A-I below. Write the correct letter A-I in boxes 38-40 on your answer sheet.
GLOBALWARMING
The writer admits that global warming is a (38) ……………….. challenge, but says that it will not have a catastrophic impact on our future, if we deal with it in the (39) ……………….. way. If we try to reduce the levels of greenhouse gases, he believes that it would only have a minimal impact on rising temperatures. He feels it would be better to spend money on the more (40) …………… health problem of providing the world’s population with clean drinking water.
A. unrealistic E. long-term I. urgent
B. agreed F. usual
C. expensive G. surprising
D. right H. personal
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Question 21: Describe a memorable concert you attended. You should say:
– Who was performing, and where was the concert held?
– When did you attend it, and who accompanied you?
– What made it memorable?
– How did the music affect you?
Sample answer by Lifestyle Training Centre:
Absolutely, I can share an unforgettable experience from a memorable concert. It was a gospel concert where I had the privilege of performing as the drummer with my team. The event took place at the renowned Garuda Mall, and it was an open-air performance, which made it all the more special.
This concert holds a unique place in my heart, not just because I was part of the band, but because it marked several “firsts” for me. It was the first time I had the opportunity to perform in an open-air setting, and the energy and ambiance were electric. The crowd’s enthusiasm, coupled with the cool evening breeze, created a magical atmosphere.
What truly made this concert memorable was the music’s effect on everyone present. Gospel music has the incredible power to touch the soul and uplift the spirit. As we played our hearts out, the audience responded with sheer joy and emotion. It was a night of celebration, and the harmonious melodies filled the air with an indescribable sense of unity and happiness.
For me, being behind the drum kit, feeling the rhythm, and witnessing how music brought people together was a profoundly moving experience. It was as if the world’s worries disappeared, and we were all connected through the universal language of music.
The memory of that concert has had a lasting impact on my love for music. It reinforced my belief in the ability of music to transcend boundaries and touch people’s lives in the most profound ways. It’s an experience I cherish and one that continues to inspire my musical journey.
In conclusion, this memorable gospel concert at Garuda Mall, with its first-time experiences and the powerful impact of music, remains etched in my heart as an unforgettable moment of unity and celebration through the art of sound.
Note: Works on iPhones and laptops. Android is not compatible yet. Please practice on a computer for accurate result. Thank you.
Speaking Test
Describe a piece of art that left an impression on you. You should say:
– What is the artwork, and who is the artist?
– Where did you see it, and when?
– What emotions or thoughts did it evoke?
– How has it influenced your appreciation for art?
Your speech transcript will appear here…
Time: 02:00
Words Spoken: 0
Minimum Words Required: 100
We use past, present, future, and different tenses on a fabricated story here. Try it out!
Model answer by Lifestyle Training Centre
One artwork that has left a profound and lasting impression on me is “The Last Supper” by Leonardo da Vinci. This iconic masterpiece, created in the late 15th century, is renowned for its meticulous detail and profound symbolism.
I first encountered “The Last Supper” during my history class in the 8th standard. Our teacher meticulously described its historical and artistic significance, and we examined a replica of the painting in our textbook. From that moment, I was profoundly intrigued by its composition and the depth of emotion it portrayed. My fascination only intensified, and I have since longed to view the original work up close.
Although I have yet to experience the mural in person, it remains a fervent aspiration of mine to visit the Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, Italy, where the original is displayed. The fresco spans an impressive 29 feet by 15 feet, and I imagine standing before this monumental work, enveloped in awe as I absorb its grandeur and historical resonance.
The emotions evoked by the replica were already quite impactful. The level of detail that da Vinci achieved was nothing short of extraordinary. Observing the figures of Jesus and his disciples, I was struck by their expressive faces and dynamic gestures, which seemed to vividly capture the moment Jesus foretold his betrayal. This scene stirred within me a profound sense of empathy, tension, and a deep connection to the human condition.
Anticipating the opportunity to see “The Last Supper” in situ has deeply influenced my appreciation for art. Even though I have not yet seen the original, the replica has significantly enhanced my understanding of how art can convey profound emotional and historical narratives. This masterpiece has illuminated the power of visual storytelling and the artist’s unparalleled ability to encapsulate a pivotal moment in history with such vivid and evocative detail. Consequently, it has ignited a passion in me to explore further into the realm of art and to appreciate the intricate narratives and emotional depth that artists imbue in their work. I earnestly hope to one day stand before “The Last Supper” and fully immerse myself in its sublime magnificence.
List of vocabulary used:
Artwork – /ˈɑːtwɜːk/ – A piece of art, such as a painting or sculpture.
Profound – /prəˈfaʊnd/ – Having deep meaning or significance.
Lasting – /ˈlæstɪŋ/ – Continuing for a long time; enduring.
Impression – /ɪmˈprɛʃən/ – An effect or influence made on someone.
Iconic – /aɪˈkɒnɪk/ – Widely recognized and well-established.
Masterpiece – /ˈmɑːstəpiːs/ – A work of outstanding artistry or skill.
Renowned – /rɪˈnaʊnd/ – Known and celebrated for a particular quality or achievement.
Meticulous – /mɪˈtɪkjələs/ – Showing great attention to detail; very careful and precise.
Symbolism – /ˈsɪmbəlɪzəm/ – The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities.
Historical – /hɪˈstɒrɪkəl/ – Relating to history or past events.
Artistic – /ɑːˈtɪstɪk/ – Pertaining to art or the arts.
Composition – /ˌkɒmpəˈzɪʃən/ – The arrangement of elements in a work of art.
Intrigued – /ɪnˈtriːɡd/ – Aroused curiosity or interest.
Fascination – /ˌfæsɪˈneɪʃən/ – Intense interest or attraction.
Aspiration – /ˌæspəˈreɪʃən/ – A strong desire to achieve something.
Mural – /ˈmjʊərəl/ – A large painting or artwork directly applied to a wall or ceiling.
Impressive – /ɪmˈprɛsɪv/ – Making a strong impact or effect.
Grand – /ɡrænd/ – Magnificent or impressive in appearance or style.
Resonance – /ˈrɛzənəns/ – A quality that evokes a strong response or emotion.
Detail – /ˈdiːteɪl/ – The small elements or aspects of something.
Expressive – /ɪkˈsprɛsɪv/ – Effectively conveying thought or feeling.
Dynamic – /daɪˈnæmɪk/ – Characterized by constant change, activity, or progress.
Evoked – /ɪˈvəʊkt/ – Brought out or elicited.
Empathy – /ˈɛmpəθi/ – The ability to understand and share the feelings of another.
Tension – /ˈtɛnʃən/ – Mental or emotional strain; suspense.
Connection – /kəˈnɛkʃən/ – A relationship or bond between things or people.
Human condition – /ˈhjuːmən kənˈdɪʃən/ – The various aspects of human life and experience.
Understanding – /ˌʌndəˈstændɪŋ/ – The ability to comprehend or grasp.
Narratives – /ˈnærətɪvz/ – Stories or accounts of events or experiences.
Storytelling – /ˈstɔːrɪˌtɛlɪŋ/ – The act of telling stories or narrating events.
Art – /ɑːt/ – The expression or application of human creative skill and imagination.
Artist – /ˈɑːtɪst/ – A person who creates art, especially visual art.
Work – /wɜːk/ – The result of a person’s labor or creative effort.
Enormous – /ɪˈnɔːməs/ – Extremely large in size or extent.
Situ – /ˈsɪtʃuː/ – situated in the original, natural, or existing place or position
Model answer 2 : LTC
I was never particularly drawn to the world of art, considering myself a non-artist for most of my life. That was until a few years ago when I had the privilege of encountering a breathtaking painting at the Kerala Eco Tourism Centre, Konni, crafted by the renowned Keralite artist, Ayyappan.
The masterpiece in question featured a lifelike representation of a magnificent elephant named Padmanabhan. What struck me immediately was the astonishingly realistic quality of the artwork. The level of detail, from the texture of the elephant’s weathered skin to the intricate patterns in the background, was simply awe-inspiring. Ayyappan’s skill and meticulous attention to every element of the painting were truly remarkable.
Ayyappan, celebrated in the art world, demonstrated his unique talent through this work of art. His ability to encapsulate the essence and personality of Padmanabhan on canvas was a testament to his extraordinary skills and unwavering dedication. It’s no surprise that he was honored with an award for this exceptional piece a couple of years prior to his untimely passing.
The impact of this painting on my perception of art has been profound. It has shown me that art possesses the ability to transport us to another world and elicit profound emotions. Ayyappan’s capacity to infuse life into his subjects through his masterful brushwork is genuinely inspiring. It kindles in me a desire to explore more works of art, each with its unique stories and emotional depths.
As I look to the future, I am eager to attend more art exhibitions and uncover the creations of other gifted artists. I firmly believe that art will continue to hold a significant place in my life, enriching my understanding of the world and the myriad emotions it holds.
Ayyappan’s lifelike portrayal of the elephant Padmanabhan is an extraordinary masterpiece that I had the privilege of experiencing at the Kerala Eco Tourism Centre. Its unparalleled level of detail and the artist’s prodigious talent have etched a lasting impression on my appreciation of art, serving as a reminder of the beauty and profound emotions that art can convey.
List of vocabulary used:
Particularly – especially; more than usually.
Drawn – attracted or interested.
Privilege – a special right or advantage.
Breathtaking – astonishingly beautiful or remarkable.
Lifelike – very similar to the real thing.
Magnificent – extremely beautiful, elaborate, or impressive.
Astonishingly – surprisingly or impressively.
Meticulous – showing great attention to detail; very careful and precise.
Celebrated – greatly admired; renowned.
Encapsulate – to express the essential features of something succinctly.
Essence – the intrinsic nature or indispensable quality of something.
Testament – evidence or proof of something.
Extraordinary – very unusual or remarkable.
Unwavering – steady or resolute; not wavering.
Untimely – occurring at an unsuitable time; premature.
Profound – very great or intense; having deep insight or understanding.
Infuse – to fill or pervade with a particular quality.
Masterful – performed or performing very skillfully.
Kindles – arouses or inspires (an emotion or feeling).
Exhibitions – public displays of works of art or items of interest.
Gifted – having exceptional talent or natural ability.
Uncover – discover or reveal something.
Creations – works of art or other products of creative effort.
Myriad – a countless or extremely great number.
Enriching – improving or enhancing the quality or value of something.
Appreciation – recognition and enjoyment of the good qualities of someone or something.
Masterpiece – a work of outstanding artistry, skill, or workmanship.
Prodigious – remarkably or impressively great in extent, size, or degree.
Etched – imprinted or ingrained firmly in the mind.
Convey – communicate or express something effectively.
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Food insecurity in low-income communities can be attributed to several root causes, and its impact on overall well-being and nutrition is significant. In this essay, we will discuss these in detail.
One of the primary causes of food insecurity is income inequality. Low-income individuals and families often struggle to afford an adequate and nutritious diet due to limited financial resources. This makes it difficult to access fresh, healthy foods, leading to an over-reliance on cheaper, less nutritious options. Lack of access to quality food sources is another major factor. Many low-income communities are located in food deserts, areas with limited access to grocery stores and fresh produce. This limits residents’ ability to obtain nutritious food, leading to food insecurity. Food insecurity can also result from unemployment or underemployment, which reduces the ability to purchase food. Low-paying jobs and job insecurity in low-income communities can make it challenging to consistently afford food, especially in times of economic hardship.
The impact of food insecurity on overall well-being and nutrition is significant. Nutrient-dense foods are essential for maintaining health, growth, and development. Food insecurity can lead to malnutrition, stunted growth in children, and the development of chronic health conditions like diabetes and heart disease. Moreover, food insecurity contributes to stress and anxiety, affecting mental health. The constant worry about accessing enough food can lead to poor mental well-being and exacerbate existing mental health conditions. Children from food-insecure households often struggle academically, as poor nutrition affects cognitive development and school performance. This can perpetuate cycles of poverty and limited opportunities.
In conclusion, food insecurity in low-income communities is caused by income inequality, limited access to quality food sources, and unemployment or underemployment. Its impact on overall well-being and nutrition includes malnutrition, physical and mental health issues, and academic challenges. Addressing food insecurity is crucial for improving the health and well-being of vulnerable populations.
